Glossary
D
DC inhibitors:
Drugs that block decarboxylase, one type of enzyme that breaks down dopamine. Also called AADC inhibitors, they include carbidopa and benserazide.
A category or subclass of enzymes that removes or eliminates a molecule of carbon dioxide from a carboxylic group. Carbidopa is an inhibitor of the decarboxylation of levodopa.
Decarboxylase:
Degenerative:
Marked by or pertaining to deterioration; particularly, deterioration of the function or structure of tissue or changes from a higher to a lower or less functionally active form.
Delirium:
A state of frenzied excitement or wild enthusiasm.
Delusions:
Persistent, aberrant beliefs
Dementia:
A neurological condition characterized by a progressive decline in intellectual functioning, resulting in impaired judgment, memory, and abstract thinking; disorientation; and personality disintegration. Dementia may result due to various underlying conditions, including certain neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer’s disease or Huntington’s disease; brain injury or tumors; inflammation of the brain (encephalitis); successive strokes; or a condition known as normal-pressure hydrocephalus, which is characterized by enlargement of cavities (ventricles) of the brain, with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) pressure at the upper end of normal. (CSF flows through and protects the ventricles of the brain, the spinal canal, and the space between layers of the membrane [meninges] enclosing the brain and spinal cord.) Normal-pressure hydrocephalus is associated with dementia, gait disturbances, and an inability to control urination (urinary incontinence).
Dendrites:
The relatively narrow, branching projections that extend from the cell bodies of neurons. Nerve cells may contain multiple dendrites, which are stimulated by neurotransmitters, receive impulses from the nerve fibers (axons) of other neurons, and convey them toward their nerve cell bodies.
A rare genetic disorder that is most commonly described in Japan. Associated symptoms may become apparent in adolescence or adulthood. Early-onset disease may be characterized by rapidly progressive neurodegenerative changes, including seizures, cognitive impairment, and brief, “shock-like” muscle spasms of certain muscles or muscle groups (myoclonus). Late-onset disease may be associated with progressively impaired control of voluntary movement (ataxia) and symptoms often seen in Huntington’s disease (HD), including chorea and gradual loss of thought processing and acquired intellectual abilities (dementia). Brain imaging studies typically reveal degenerative changes of the globus pallidus and specialized nerve cell clusters within the cerebellum (dentate nucleus). Similar to HD, the disorder may result from abnormally long sequences or “repeats” of particular coded instructions (unstable expanded CAG repeats) within a gene (located on chromosome 12).
Dentatorubropallidoluysian atrophy:
Detoxification:
Detoxification is the process of removing or neutralizing toxins in the body
Diaphragm:
The dome-shaped muscle that separates the chest and abdomen. The diaphragm plays an essential role in breathing, contracting when air is drawn into the lungs and relaxing upon exhalation.
Differential diagnosis:
Distinguishing between two or more diseases and conditions with similar symptoms by systematically comparing and contrasting their clinical findings, including physical signs, symptoms, as well as the results of laboratory tests and other appropriate diagnostic procedures.
Diuretics:
Medications that promote the excretion of urine. Such medications are often prescribed to help reduce excess fluid levels in the body, such as associated with chronic heart failure, high blood pressure (hypertension), or certain kidney (renal) or liver (hepatic) disorders. Diuretics help to remove excess water from the body by increasing the amount that is excreted as urine.
DNA:
Deoxyribonucleic acid. DNA is a spiraling, ladder-like (helical) molecule that is the carrier of the genetic code. Nucleic acids are the primary components of the chromosomes within the nuclei of cells. DNA is also found in mitochondria, the rod-like structures outside the nuclei of cells that function as a primary source of cellular energy.
Dopamine:
A neurotransmitter that controls movement and balance and is essential to the proper functioning of the central nervous system (CNS). Dopamine assists in the effective transmission of electrochemical signals from one nerve cell (neuron) to another.
Dopamine agonist (DA):
A drug that acts like dopamine. DAs combine with dopamine receptors to mimic dopamine actions. Such medications stimulate dopamine receptors and produce dopamine-like effects.
Dopamine autoreceptor:
A type of dopamine receptor that acts like a thermostat, preventing excess dopamine release as levels rise.
Dopamine receptor:
A molecule on a receiving nerve cell (neuron) that is sensitive (or receptive) to stimulation (arousal) by dopamine or a dopamine agonist. At least five types have been identified including D1, D2, D3 receptors and the dopamine auto receptor.
Dopamine receptor antagonist:
A pharmacologic agent that binds to and blocks the action of dopamine receptors, essentially hindering receptor activity by preventing stimulation by dopamine.
Dopamine transporter:
Dopamine is a chemical in the body that allows one nerve cell to send a message or signal to another nerve cell and helps to control movement. After dopamine finishes sending its message, a substance called a dopamine transporter carries the dopamine back from the nerve ending to the cell that produced it so that the dopamine can be reused. The number of dopamine transporters is a sign of the number of nerve endings that produce or release dopamine.
Dopaminergic:
Having the effect of dopamine or related to dopamine-producing cells
Dopaminergic dysfunction:
Malfunction of dopamine receptors.
Double-blind trial:
A double-blind trial is a clinical experiment in which neither the patients nor the researchers are aware of which patients are receiving the active treatment and which are receiving placebo.
Dysarthria:
Disordered or impaired articulation of speech due to disturbances of muscular control, usually resulting from damage to the central or peripheral nervous system. Dysarthria is associated with certain neurodegenerative disorders, such as Parkinson’s disease or Huntington’s disease; cerebral palsy; brain tumors or stroke; or certain types of brain surgery.
Dysesthesias:
Unpleasant sensations that are produced in response to normal stimuli.
Dyskinesias:
Abnormal neuromuscular conditions characterized by disorganized or excessive movement (also known as hyperkinesia). Forms of dyskinesia include sudden, brief, “shock-like” muscle contractions (myoclonus); involuntary, rhythmic, oscillatory movements of a body part (tremor); rapid involuntary jerky movements (chorea); relatively slow writhing motions (athetosis); or abrupt, purposeless, simple or complex muscle movements or vocalizations (motor or vocal tics).
Dyskinesias while awake (DWA):
Uncontrolled, sporadic movements of the legs and, in some cases, the arms. These movements may be very rapid (myoclonic) or quite slow and prolonged (dystonic); they usually disappear upon voluntary action. Some researchers suspect that these movements may represent a wakeful form of periodic limb movements in sleep (PLMS).
Dysphagia:
Difficulty in swallowing. Dysphagia may be associated with esophageal obstruction as well as certain neurodegenerative or motor disorders involving the esophagus.
Dyspraxia:
Partial loss of the ability to coordinate and perform certain purposeful movements and gestures in the absence of motor or sensory impairments.
Dystonia:
A neurologic movement disorder characterized by sustained muscle contractions, resulting in repetitive, involuntary, twisting or writhing movements and unusual postures or positioning. Dystonia may be limited to specific muscle groups (focal dystonia), such as dystonia affecting muscles of the neck (cervical dystonia or spasmodic torticollis) or the eyes, resulting in closure of the eyelids (blepharospasm). Dystonia is associated with certain underlying genetic disorders, such as dystonia musculorum deformans, dopa-responsive dystonia, and paroxysmal kinesigenic and paroxysmal non-kinesigenic dystonic choreoathetosis. The condition may result from the use of certain medications, lack of oxygen during or immediately after birth, or other causes of brain trauma.
Dystonic:
Referring to dystonia; sudden jerky or repetitive movements and muscle spasms due to impaired muscle tone and abnormal muscle rigidity.
DYT-1 dystonia:
The DYT-1 gene regulates or “encodes” the production of a protein called torsinA. Although its specific function is not known, torrsinA appears to be related to a class of proteins that enable cells to recover from injury or stress. The change, or mutation, that causes DYT-1 dystonia involves one of a pair of three basic chemical “building blocks” of DNA. These are called guanine, adenine, and guanine, or “GAG” trinucleotides and are part of the genetic code within the DYT-1 gene. The specific mutation that occurs in DYT-1 dystonia is an absence, or deletion, of GAG. This relatively tiny change in the blueprint for torsinA apparently causes critical changes in the function of the protein and may lead to the symptoms of dystonia.